5G Frequency Range 2 (FR2), commonly known as millimeter-wave (mmWave), operates within the 24.25 GHz to 52.6 GHz spectrum range. While mmWave has been used for decades in applications requiring high frequency and bandwidth, its integration into 5G networks represents a new phase in mobile communication.
Historically, mmWave technology has been applied in radar systems (including automotive and aerospace radar), satellite communication, point-to-point communication links, security imaging scanners, and industrial sensing and measurement equipment. In these applications, public exposure was typically incidental and minimal, with workers protected by occupational safety regulations.
Current Use of 5G FR2
Key Applications of 5G FR2
Today, 5G FR2 is not only used for point-to-point links but is also deployed for several key applications, including:
- Backhaul and fronthaul communication
- Hotspot 5G access
- Fixed wireless access
Human Exposure Context
With 5G FR2, however, exposure can occur both in public and private spaces, including within homes, especially when devices like mmWave-enabled smartphones are used. This is due to both 5G FR2-enabled base stations and user devices contributing to exposure in everyday environments.
Public exposure to FR2 is currently limited but is expected to rise as FR2 networks expand. In many countries, mmWave is still in trial or early deployment stages, with broad consumer coverage yet to come. However, commercial 5G cellular networks that include FR2 are already operational in the following countries:
- United States
- Japan
Other countries that have early deployment activity or have allocated mmWave spectrum (with some limited commercial use) include:
- Germany
- Italy
- Finland
- Spain
- Australia
- Taiwan
- Hong Kong
- Singapore
Further Research Needs in Relation to FR2
According to the German Radiation Protection Commission (SSK), scientific understanding of the biological and health effects of 5G millimeter-wave frequencies (FR2), especially those above 24 GHz, is still limited. This is mainly because these waves are absorbed primarily at the surface of the body, which makes it harder to assess their effects on deeper tissues.
The Commission emphasizes the need for more research on FR2 frequencies used in telecommunications and advocates for methodologically rigorous studies to better assess potential health risks. Importantly, they do not call for halting the 5G rollout, but instead encourage ongoing monitoring and continued research.
Key Areas of Focus for Future Research:
- Effects on the skin and eyes, as these are the most exposed parts of the body.
- Biological processes mediated through the skin, particularly effects on the nervous system and immune responses.
- Long-term effects, both in humans and animal models, to understand chronic exposure risks.
- Thermal and non-thermal effects, with particular interest in potential non-thermal mechanisms that could affect health.
Several ongoing European research projects aim to address these gaps, and their findings will be critical for guiding future policy and health recommendations in regions like Germany, where FR2 frequencies are being actively considered for broader use. Citation: Radiation Protection Commission, “Electromagnetic fields from mobile communications in the context of the current 5G network rollout: Technical aspects and biological effects in the upper frequency range (FR2, above approx. 24 GHz)”, Statement of the Radiation Protection Commission, January 21, 2026. Link to the statement | Link to the full report (PDF).
Continued research into FR2 frequencies is crucial to ensure public health safety and inform policy decisions on 5G deployment.
Germany’s FR2 Statement
Germany is not calling for a halt to the deployment of 5G FR2 frequencies (the higher millimeter-wave bands, above 24 GHz). Instead, Germany’s Radiation Protection Commission (SSK) is emphasizing continued monitoring and further research into potential health effects rather than suspending the rollout. While Germany has not opposed the use of FR2 frequencies, it has clearly identified gaps in the current scientific evidence and is urging additional studies to ensure that public health remains adequately protected.
The Complexities of EMF Research and Safety Guidelines
Organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) state that millimeter waves, including those used in 5G FR2, are unlikely to cause harm when exposure remains within established safety limits. These guidelines focus primarily on thermal effects (tissue heating), which are well-understood and supported by extensive evidence. At the same time, WHO and ICNIRP acknowledge that research gaps remain, particularly at higher frequencies such as those used in FR2.
While major health organizations continue to uphold the adequacy of current safety standards, some independent scientific reviews argue that these guidelines primarily focus on thermal effects, potentially overlooking long-term or non-thermal mechanisms. However, not all accept these critiques, and they remain part of ongoing scientific debate. Despite this, the prevailing consensus among health organizations is that current exposure limits are sufficient to protect against established adverse health effects.
Further Reading
Maritime 5G and Marine Ecosystems https://www.emfsa.co.za/news/maritime-5g-and-marine-ecosystems/
References
A Look at the Current Status of 5G and Millimeter Waves at Home and Abroad [Part 1] — Frequency Allocation and Commercial Service Launch https://www.telegraphic.jp/en/2023/12/19/
5G Frequency Bands & Spectrum Allocations
How expert bodies assess mobile communications https://www.telekom.com/en/corporate-responsibility/environment/details/how-expert-bodies-assess-mobile-communications-361642
Fact Sheet: GSMA 5G mmWave https://www.gsma.com/get-involved/gsma-foundry/gsma_resources/gsma-5g-mmwave-fact-sheet/
Author’s note
This article was conceived and written by the author. AI-based tools were used to assist with language refinement, formatting, and clarity.
Image adapted from a photo by gryffyn m on Unsplash
