Published: 26 February 2026
By EMFSA

Class 2B Possible Human Carcinogens

Class 2B Possible Human Carcinogens are substances or exposures identified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as possibly carcinogenic to humans. This classification is based on limited or inconclusive evidence in humans, supported by preclinical studies in animals or mechanistic research. Importantly, being classified as possibly carcinogenic indicates hazard, not proven risk at typical environmental exposure levels.

Evidence and Examples of Class 2B Agents

To illustrate the diversity of evidence, consider two notable examples. In November 2025, IARC classified vinclozolin, a pesticide, as “possibly carcinogenic to humans,” based on animal studies showing liver and reproductive effects, including multigenerational impacts. Human data remain limited, but the experimental findings were sufficient to support a Group 2B designation.

Radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields were classified earlier, in 2011, based primarily on limited human epidemiological evidence suggesting a potential association with certain brain tumors, alongside mechanistic data from preclinical studies available at that time. Following this classification, additional research, such as the NTP 2018 animal study, investigated high-dose RF-EMF exposure in both rats and mice and observed small increases in certain tumors in male rats, particularly cardiac schwannomas and some brain gliomas. Although these post-classification studies contribute to ongoing research, they did not influence the original Group 2B designation. Evaluations by the WHO EMF Project and IARC continue to assess new evidence to determine whether future reclassification may be warranted.

At the same time, international review efforts have continued. The WHO EMF Project and IARC are assessing newer evidence to determine whether the existing classification remains appropriate or whether future reassessment may be warranted.

Taken together, these examples show that Class 2B agents represent signals of potential carcinogenicity that warrant further research, regulatory attention, and precautionary measures, while reinforcing that current evidence in humans remains limited or inconclusive.

Regulatory and Precautionary Approaches

Regulatory responses vary depending on the type of agent and the strength of evidence available. In some jurisdictions, vinclozolin has been restricted or phased out following toxicological concerns. By contrast, regulators manage RF-EMF exposure primarily through guidelines and public health recommendations.

It is important to clarify that the World Health Organization does not set exposure limits directly. Instead, independent scientific bodies such as ICNIRP and IEEE develop exposure guidelines, while WHO evaluates the broader health evidence and provides risk assessments to governments.

Understanding Class 2B Possible Human Carcinogens

Overall, Class 2B Possible Human Carcinogens indicate that credible scientific signals exist, yet the evidence is not strong enough to establish causation in humans. As a result, the designation encourages further research, careful monitoring, and proportionate precaution, without implying confirmed human cancer risk.

IARC Classification System

The International Agency for Research on Cancer classification system is defined as follows:

• Group 1 — Carcinogenic to humans
• Group 2A — Probably carcinogenic to humans
• Group 2B — Possibly carcinogenic to humans
• Group 3 — Not classifiable as to carcinogenicity in humans

More on the topic: : IARC Monographs evaluation of the carcinogenicity of night shift work https://www.emfsa.co.za/research-and-studies/iarc-monographs-evaluation-of-the-carcinogenicity-of-night-shift-work/

References:

1. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). List of Classifications, including Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields. Last updated 25 February 2026.https://monographs.iarc.who.int/list-of-classifications
2. US Right to Know. One Exposure, Twenty Generations Later: The Damage is Unfolding. 2025. https://usrtk.org/healthwire/one-exposure-twenty-generations-later-the-damage-is-unfolding/
3. World Health Organization. International EMF Project https://www.who.int/initiatives/the-international-emf-project
4. WHO Radiation and health https://www.who.int/teams/environment-climate-change-and-health/radiation-and-health/non-ionizing/wireless
5. ICNIRP. Guidelines for limiting exposure to electromagnetic fields (100 kHz – 300 GHz). 2020. https://www.icnirp.org/en/publications/article/rf-guidelines-2020.html

* Image adapted from Photo by Milad Fakurian on Unsplash

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Induction Hobs

What levels of exposure do induction hobs produce — and should current safety standards be revisited? A recent study takes a closer look at these questions.

Extremely Low Frequency Magnetic Fields (ELF-MF) Exposure: Insights from Switzerland’s Strict Limit

Read about: 

• The Loizeau study measured ELF-MF in public areas, transport settings, and homes near power lines and transformers (Environ Int., 2024;194:109181)

• Switzerland’s strict national limits for electromagnetic fields from power lines and electrical devices. 

Combined Exposure to RF-EMF and Chemical Carcinogens

The Federal Office for Radiation Protection (BfS) continues to support further research into possible increased cancer risks following combined exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) and chemical carcinogens.

Spotlight – Sep/2025 No.1 (Eng), Competence Centre for Electromagnetic Fields (KEMF)
Citation: urn:nbn:de:0221-2025090854656

The GSMA – Representing the Mobile Industry

In the EMFSA October 2025 Newsletter, we highlight the 14th GSMA EMF Forum that took place on 30 September 2025. Of specific interest is the presentation by Dr. Emilie van Deventer and Dr. Jos Verbeek on the WHO’s ongoing systematic reviews on RF-EMF health effects, evaluating potential risks, including cancer, from exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields.

Alternative Perspective on WHO EMF Reviews

An ongoing debate in the scientific community questions how EMF evidence is evaluated. Scientists and activist groups have highlighted potential issues in the WHO’s systematic reviews on RF-EMF health effects, including study selection, methodology, and possible author bias.

Insects and Pollinators

The 49th Apimondia Conference is the world’s largest beekeeping event. It brings together beekeepers, scientists, honey traders, manufacturers, and policymakers. Participants exchange knowledge, showcase innovations, and discuss scientific advances shaping the future of apiculture.

“Chernobyl Black Frogs”

Mortazavi S, Rabiee S, Fallah A, et al. Adaptive Responses in High-Radiation Environments: Insights From Chernobyl Wildlife and Ramsar Residents. Dose-Response. 2025;23(4) https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/15593258251385632

Why have these frogs developed darker pigmentation?
Why is this important for evolutionary biology, radiobiology, and public health?

Full newsletter https://mailchi.mp/emfsa/emfsa-october-2025-newsletter

Further reading: Radiofrequency radiation and metal containing nanoparticles https://www.emfsa.co.za/research-and-studies/radiofrequency-radiation-and-metal-containing-nanoparticles/

The post EMFSA October 2025 Newsletter appeared first on EMFSA.

MTN’s half-year 2025 financial report confirms ongoing cooperation and promises updates on material developments. The 2024 annual report had disclosed U.S. Anti-Terrorism Act litigation but assessed liability as “remote” with no contingent liabilities.

Analysis by the Foreign Policy Research Institute highlights potential implications for multinational companies in geopolitically complex regions.

Aviation / 5G Interference

Researchers at KAUST (Saudi Arabia) developed a new mathematical approach to protect aircraft from 5G interference. The study defines an ideal exclusion zone around runways, balancing safety with network performance. This model is expected to guide aviation regulators and telecom authorities in 5G tower deployment near airports.

Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP)

Decades of research have explored wireless solar energy from orbit. Current designs convert sunlight via photovoltaic cells in geostationary orbit into microwaves, which are transmitted to rectennas on Earth and fed into the grid. Recent studies suggest SBSP could play a key role in Europe’s clean energy transition.

5G / 6G and Human Skin

New studies examine how millimeter waves interact with skin and cells. Modeling shows human skin cannot be treated as uniform when exposed to 5G/6G millimeter waves. Short-term exposure to 5G-modulated 3.5 GHz fields does not affect oxidative stress or DNA repair in human skin cells under controlled conditions. The findings are limited to acute exposures of up to 48 hours, and longer-term studies in more realistic biological models are needed.

WHO RF-EMF Systematic Reviews – Swiss FOEN & FOPH

High reliability was observed for carcinogenicity in animal studies, but results do not directly indicate human health effects. Detailed results will be presented in the WHO report scheduled for the end of 2025. Switzerland’s federal protection framework remains in place, guided by the Environmental Protection Act and the Ordinance on Protection against Non-Ionizing Radiation, with the precautionary principle central.

Systematic Reviews & Meta-Analyses for WHO RF-EMF Assessment

A special issue of Environment International presents the culmination of four years of collaborative work by over 80 global scientific experts. It includes nine protocols and twelve systematic reviews supporting human health risk assessment of RF-EMF exposure. The editorial summarizes methodology, commissioning processes, and key findings.

Environmental 60 Hz Magnetic Fields (MFs)

A new study analyzed electric fields induced by powerline frequency (60 Hz) magnetic fields in human legs. Results underline the importance of rigorous modeling to refine exposure systems, standards, and guidelines.

Radon

Switzerland maintains one of the most detailed national radon databases worldwide, with around 300,000 indoor measurements. Other countries have similar databases, though methodologies vary.

Recent measurements in Scotland revealed elevated radon levels in nine Highland Council properties, including two schools, underscoring the importance of regular testing. South Africa currently lacks a comprehensive national radon database.

AI

Parents of a teenager who took his own life have filed a lawsuit against OpenAI. The company has announced plans to modify ChatGPT following the case, which claimed the chatbot contributed to the teen’s suicide.

In Memoriam

We are deeply saddened by the passing of George Parker, an icon in the EHS community. His contributions and legacy will be long remembered.

Read the EMFSA August 2025 Newsletter at https://mailchi.mp/emfsa/august-2025-newsletter

Subscribe to our Free Monthly Newsletter https://www.emfsa.co.za/newsletter/

EMFSA August 2025 Newsletter: Logo of EMFSA, illustrating the focus on electromagnetic field safety and awareness, combining stylized RF waves with imagery of communication towers

The post EMFSA August 2025 Newsletter appeared first on EMFSA.

Publication date 24th April 2024

Summary: WHO is currently updating the assessment of potential health risk possibly related to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF). A series of systematic reviews commissioned by the WHO will substantially inform the new WHO EHC monograph. But what exactly is a systematic review? What requirements must such a review fulfil, what work is necessary and what does a systematic review provide? Find out more about the WHO process for preparing the new EHC monograph and the systematic reviews in this spotlight.

PDF https://doris.bfs.de/jspui/bitstream/urn:nbn:de:0221-2024042443254/5/SL_WHO-Systematic-Reviews_2024_Eng.pdf

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In this newsletter, we explore the rising rates of colorectal cancer among young people. Be sure to read ‘An Illustration of Modern Life,’ which provides a glimpse into the life of a child in today’s world

Read more at: https://mailchi.mp/emfsa/colorectal-cancer

The post EMFSA May 2024 Newsletter appeared first on EMFSA.

EMFSA pdf:

https://www.emfsa.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Newsletter-BERENIS-Nr.-31-ENGLISH-1.pdf

The post 31st newsletter of the Swiss expert group on electromagnetic fields and non-ionising radiation (BERENIS appeared first on EMFSA.

Purpose

The deployment of new 5G NR technology has significantly raised public concerns in possible negative effects on human health by radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF EMF). The current review is aimed to clarify the differences between possible health effects caused by the various generations of telecommunication technology, especially discussing and projecting possible health effects by 5G. The review of experimental studies on the human brain over the last fifteen years and the discussion on physical mechanisms and factors determining the dependence of the RF EMF effects on frequency and signal structure have been performed to discover and explain the possible distinctions between health effects by different telecommunication generations.

Conclusions

The human experimental studies on RF EMF effects on the human brain by 2G, 3G and 4G at frequencies from 450 to 2500 MHz were available for analyses. The search for publications indicated no human experimental studies by 5G nor at the RF EMF frequencies higher than 2500 MHz. The results of the current review demonstrate no consistent relationship between the character of RF EMF effects and parameters of exposure by different generations (2G, 3G, and 4G) of telecommunication technology. At the RF EMF frequencies lower than 10 GHz, the impact of 5G NR FR1 should have no principal differences compared to the previous generations. The radio frequencies used in 5G are even higher and the penetration depths of the fields are smaller; therefore, the effect is rather lower than at previous generations. At the RF EMF frequencies higher than 10 GHz, the mechanism of the effects might differ and the impact of 5G NR FR2 becomes unpredictable. Existing knowledge about the mechanism of RF EMF effects at millimeter waves lacks sufficient experimental data and theoretical models for reliable conclusions. The insufficient knowledge about the possible health effects at millimeter waves and the lack of in vivo experimental studies on 5G NR underline an urgent need for the theoretical and experimental investigations of health effects by 5G NR, especially by 5G NR FR2.

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09553002.2022.2026516

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https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/22/5/1715/htm

In this study, ten RF sensor nodes were installed on building façades in an urban environment in the city centre of Antwerp, Belgium, with an area of 0.11 km2. Between 146 thousand and 1.307 million samples (per 30 s) were collected per sensor and per frequency band over 475 days between January 2019 and May 2020. 

In summary, this paper offers invaluable insights applicable to future designs and deployments of distributed RF-EMF sensor networks: from the initial deployment (e.g., the sensor placement and density) to the trade-off between the sampling rate and the total measuring period (e.g., in the case of battery-powered sensors). Finally, various techniques are proposed to improve the spatiotemporal assessment of RF-EMF exposure in large geographical areas, such as nomadic sensors, optimized temporal profiles, time-series clustering, and spatiotemporal interpolation techniques. In the future, these techniques will be verified in a larger RF-EMF sensing network.

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Abstract

In the last decades, experimental studies have been carried out to investigate the effects of radiofrequency (RF, 100 kHz–300 GHz) electromagnetic fields (EMF) exposure on the apoptotic process. As evidence-based critical evaluation of RF and apoptosis in vitro is lacking, we performed a scoping literature review with the aim of systematically mapping the research performed in this area and identifying gaps in knowledge. Eligible for inclusion were in vitro studies assessing apoptosis in mammalian cells exposed to RF-EMF, which met basic quality criteria (sham control, at least three independent experiments, appropriate dosimetry analysis and temperature monitoring). We conducted a systematic literature review and charted data in order to overview the main characteristics of included studies. From the 4362 papers retrieved with our search strategy, 121 were pertinent but, among them, only 42 met basic quality criteria. We pooled data with respect to exposure (frequency, exposure level and duration) and biological parameters (cell type, endpoint), and highlighted some qualitative trends with respect to the detection of significant effect of RF-EMF on the apoptotic process. We provided a qualitative picture of the evidence accumulated so far, and highlighted that the quality of experimental methodology still needs to be highly improved. 

https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/4/2322

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Abstract

Background

An Italian project aims to review the scientific literature on the possible carcinogenicity of radiofrequency (100 kHz–300 GHz) electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure. The ENEA team has to carry out a systematic review of the in vivo studies on this topic.

Objectives

Development of a protocol for a systematic review (meta-analysis included) to investigate the potential carcinogenic risk following RF-EMF in vivo exposure to doses above or within legal limits. The aims of this review are (1) to provide a descriptive and, if possible, a quantitative summary of the results of the examined RF-EMF in vivo studies, together with an assessment of the consistency of observations and of the causes of heterogeneity, and (2) to assess the weight of evidence to support or refute the hypothesis of carcinogenic effects caused by RF-EMF exposure and to draw conclusions about the potential for carcinogenicity of RF-EMF exposure.

Methods

We will search for relevant studies in electronic academic databases and in the reference list of selected papers and reviews on the topic, including the descriptive reviews on RF-EMF carcinogenic effect carried out by international panels of experts since 2011. The following elements of the PECO question were defined: experimental studies on rodents of both sexes, all ages and species, all genetic backgrounds (Population) exposed to RF-EMF alone, or in combination with other physical or chemical agents (Exposure); only studies reporting outcome data in exposed and sham control groups (Comparison); and all types of cancer with all tumor-related outcome measures (Outcome) will be included.

Only peer-reviewed articles written in English will be considered without limit in the publication date.

Eligibility criteria were defined for papers to be included. A risk of bias assessment will be performed using a tool specifically developed for animal studies. A meta-analysis will be performed, if feasible, for all outcome measures; for subgroup analysis, a minimum of 3 studies per subgroup will be required. If meta-analysis will not be possible, a narrative synthesis of the results will be reported.

Systematic review registration

PROSPERO CRD42020191105

Highlights

• An Italian collaborative research agreement aims to review the scientific literature on the possible carcinogenicity of RF-EMF (100 kHz – 300 GHz).
• The ENEA team will systematically review and, if possible, meta-analyse estimates the effects of in vivo exposure to RF-EMF exposure on cancer.
• The ENEA group is a multidisciplinary team of researchers with a consolidated experience both in carcinogenicity experiments and radiofrequency dosimetric assessment.
• The proposed protocol uses the NTP OHAT Approach for Systematic Review as an organizing framework.
• The proposed protocol aims to lead to the first systematic review providing a strength of evidence assessment on this topic.

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13643-022-01898-4

PDF available at the link above.

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